Juvenile Justice Act and Its Role in Addressing Juvenile Delinquency

Abstract

Juvenile delinquency is one of the challenges to societal harmony as it involves the engagement of minors in unlawful activities due to a plethora of social, psychological, and economic factors. The task requires a balanced approach so that rights of the juveniles are protected without putting public safety at risk. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, is a milestone in India to address the issue of juvenile delinquency. This Act, therefore, is rehabilitation, reform, and reintegration-based, yet in accordance with international conventions, like the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
The key provisions of the Act include separate treatment for juveniles in conflict with the law, establishment of Juvenile Justice Boards and Child Welfare Committees, and mechanisms for care, protection, and rehabilitation. The Act also contains a contentious provision whereby 16–18-year-olds, involved in heinous crimes, can be tried as adults under specific circumstances.
Despite the importance of the Act, its implementation is also facing several challenges, including infrastructural inadequacies, inconsistent enforcement, and stigma from society. Although the Act has improved the recidivism rate and child-centric justice, reformations are necessary to fill in systemic gaps. A holistic approach towards education, awareness, and community involvement is crucial for the effective mitigation of juvenile delinquency and towards an inclusive society.

Keywords: Juvenile delinquency, Juvenile Justice Act 2015, rehabilitation and reform, Juvenile Justice Boards, Child Welfare Committees, and rights of juveniles. Public safety, international conventions, United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Introduction

Juvenile delinquency is generally the involvement of minors below the age of 18 in criminal activities. It has become a complicated issue driven by social, economic, and psychological factors that commonly mirror deeper issues within society. Social causes that push a juvenile toward crime include factors such as broken families, peer pressure, lack of education, and exposure to violence. Economic factors that include poverty and unemployment, among others, aggravate the situation. It is also a psychological factor. Juveniles may engage themselves in delinquency due to lack of emotional support and poor mental health or using maladaptive coping mechanisms for their problems. Some juveniles end up being involved in crimes due to lack of social support or even trauma resulting from some social exclusion in their lives.

Legally as well as socially, juvenile delinquency has to be curbed. From a legal point of view, it is important to establish frameworks that protect the rights of juveniles while ensuring public safety. On the other hand, a social approach is necessary to address the root causes of delinquency, focusing on prevention, rehabilitation, and reintegration into society. The social impact of juvenile crime can be far-reaching, leading to increased crime rates, a breakdown in social fabric, and long-term consequences for the individual involved, such as stigmatization and recidivism.

The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, marks a critical step in the approach taken by India with regard to juvenile delinquency. This act is designed for a complete legal framework governing the care, protection, and rehabilitation of juveniles in conflict with the law, with special emphasis on the well-being of these children, as well as their potential to reform. It marks an end to punitive measures alone and adopts a more rehabilitative and restorative approach.

This article tries to explore the issue of juvenile delinquency, examines the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, analyses its provisions, impact, and challenges. The article then tries to put forth and discuss reforms that are to be needed for juvenile delinquency, suggesting holistic solutions to deal with the problems. History of Juvenile Justice in India

The history of juvenile justice in India has evolved in ways that reflect the changing needs of society, international standards, and the growing realization of children’s rights. Initial legislation in India, focused on juvenile issues, was rudimentary, more of a punitive nature than restorative. One of the very first laws enacted was the Apprentices Act, 1850, wherein the courts allowed young offenders-mostly minor- to be sent as an apprentice to a master in lieu of being sent to prison. It was not really a measure of rehabilitation and reform but did mark an early step in separating the juvenile offender from the hardened criminal.

In 1986, the Juvenile Justice Act was enacted in India, which was, in fact, a very good change in the policy-making of the country regarding juvenile crimes. This Act dealt with children who committed crimes to be treated differently from adults. There was a need to present a more humane and rehabilitation-oriented approach. The Act put in place a structure of Juvenile Justice Boards that will examine the mental and social condition of the juvenile to determine the nature of action to be taken against the latter. The JJA formed a part of efforts made towards aligning Indian juvenile justice laws with the ever-growing international consensus that children need to be treated with dignity and granted opportunities for reform rather than punishing them as adults.

Despite its progressive character, the Juvenile Justice Act, 1986 was not without shortcomings. One of the major criticisms was that it did not adequately address rising concerns about heinous crimes by minors, especially in the category of those between the ages of 16 and 18. In addition, there was a challenge in implementing the Act and it did not provide for international standards or an effective system of care for those in conflict with the law among juveniles.

The need for reform was realized, and the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, was formulated. This new Act was brought in to fill gaps in the 1986 law and was a response to changing societal needs and international conventions such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), which India ratified in 1992. The 2015 Act was more focused on the welfare and rehabilitation of juveniles, thereby reiterating the belief that children, owing to their developmental stage, should be given a chance to reform. Additionally, it introduced provisions for trying juveniles aged 16–18 as adults in cases of heinous crimes, a controversial yet necessary reform in response to increasing concerns about juvenile violence.

The evolution of juvenile justice laws in India highlights the country’s commitment to balancing the protection of children’s rights with the need to address rising juvenile crime in a rapidly changing society.

Key Provisions of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015

The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 is a comprehensive legal framework designed to address the needs of children in conflict with the law and those in need of care and protection. The Act seeks to strike a balance between the rehabilitation of juveniles and the protection of society, ensuring that children’s rights are safeguarded while also addressing the growing concerns about juvenile crime.

Categorization of Children

The Act divides children into two broad categories:

1. Children in Conflict with Law: These are minors who have committed offenses, either petty, serious, or heinous in nature. The main focus for these children is rehabilitation and reintegration into society, rather than punitive punishment.

2. Children in Need of Care and Protection: This category consists of children deprived of their basic needs and rights. These include children who have lost one or both parents, abandoned by their parents, or are subjected to abuse or exploitation. The law seeks to safeguard these children through care, protection, and rehabilitation services.

This classification truly mirrors the dual approach of the Act, dealing with both offending children and those who are at the other end of the spectrum and vulnerable due to the circumstances.

Juvenile Justice Boards (JJBs) and Child Welfare Committees (CWCs)

The Act requires the establishment of two bodies:

1. Juvenile Justice Boards (JJBs): They are specialized tribunals designed to deal with children in conflict with the law. The JJB is tasked with conducting inquiries, determining the mental and social status of juveniles, and deciding the rehabilitative measures appropriate for the juvenile. The board has a presiding officer who is a magistrate and two social workers, at least one of whom must be a woman.

2. Districts-level Child Welfare Committees (CWCs): The primary agenda that involves making district-wise committees for children who come to the attention of Child welfare committees for care and protection. CWC takes steps ensuring the safe and sound restoration of orphaned, abandoned, or abused children’s safety either under foster care, shelter home or through adoption. Both JJBs and CWCs play a crucial role in ensuring that children’s rights are respected in legal and welfare proceedings, with a focus on rehabilitation and welfare rather than punitive measures.

Rehabilitation and Reintegration Measures

• The Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 is more on rehabilitation and reintegrating rather than punishments. The law provides that there is a need to treat in a manner that will enhance a juvenile’s physical, emotional, and psychological well-being, with the provision of providing several rehabilitation measures for the achievement of:

  a) Rehabilitation Homes and Shelter Care: The Act directs the provision of different child care institutions such as Observation Homes, Special Homes, and Children’s Homes wherein juveniles can be given protection, education, vocational training, and counseling.
  b) Restorative Justice: The Act places emphasis on restorative practices such as community service and counseling in helping juveniles understand the effects of their actions and reintegrate into society constructively.
  c) Provisions for Children Aged 16–18 Years Tried as Adults in Heinous Offenses
  The most debated provision of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 is the clause relating to the trial of juveniles aged 16 to 18 years as adults for heinous offenses, including murder, rape, and terrorism. This provision was introduced in response to rising concerns over the involvement of minors in grave crimes, particularly after high-profile cases such as the 2012 Delhi gang rape. However, the Act also stipulates that before a juvenile is tried as an adult, a Juvenile Justice Board must conduct an assessment of their mental and social maturity to determine if they should face adult penalties. This is to balance public safety and the notion that a juvenile develops cognitively differently compared to an adult.

Non-Penal Measures
The Juvenile Justice Act 2015 provides for non-penal measures to address the issue of juvenile delinquency. These include:

1. Counseling and Therapy: All juveniles in conflict with the law are given some form of psychological counseling or therapy so that the person may overcome the emotional/behavioral issues that created the delinquency.
2. Skill Development and Education: The Act strongly focuses on education and skill development of juveniles so that the reintegration of such juveniles into society as productive members would be possible.
3. Restorative Justice: The Act does not concentrate on punitive measures but rests on restorative justice in terms of mediation, reconciliation, and community service to enable the juveniles to realize the after-effect of their actions and understand the victim’s position.
   These non-penal measures are designed to prevent re-offending and help the juveniles develop into responsible, law-abiding citizens.

Role of the Juvenile Justice Act in Dealing with Delinquency

The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 is aimed at providing a comprehensive framework for dealing with juvenile delinquency, focusing more on rehabilitation and reformation rather than punishment. The Act reflects an evolving understanding of juvenile justice, which recognizes that children, by virtue of their age and developmental stage, need care, protection, and guidance to reintegrate into society. Further in the succeeding texts, we determine how exactly the Act helped achieve prevention of juvenile delinquency along with measures made to meet its intended aim.

Reformation vs. Punishment

Rehabilitation and reformation are, therefore, the central principles of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015. This Act acknowledges that children commit crimes due to various reasons like peer pressure, family problems, socio-economic conditions, and psychological trauma. Therefore, the Act promotes corrective measures that are rehabilitative, such as counseling, education, vocational training, and therapy, rather than penalty-oriented measures that may further degrade the child’s development.

It institutionalizes Observation Homes and Special Homes for the housing of juveniles who come in conflict with the law. The institutions are established to create an environment that will not only provide punishment but would also nurture the child emotionally and intellectually. In these homes, juveniles are allowed education, skills training, and counseling to make them productive in society. This approach puts more emphasis on the idea of reform rather than punishment in connection with juvenile offenders.

Adoption and Foster Care Mechanism

This Act also introduces into the framework Adoption and Foster Care mechanisms. These mechanisms ensure the protection of children under care, and it comes in place to cater to the needs of children with need of care and protection. The Act promotes family-based care instead of institutional care for children, because the emotional development of a child requires the nurturing and supportive environment that a family provides. The mechanisms available here give orphaned, abandoned, or neglected children the chance to be placed in adoptive or foster families where they can experience love, care, and stability.

The adoption procedures aim to place children in safe and loving homes and respect the rights of the children throughout the procedure. The foster care systems are encouraged to ensure temporary, safe living settings for children that provide personal care and attention. With this emphasis on family-based care, the cycle of abuse and neglect can be more easily broken to give these children a better chance at having a healthier and more promising future.

Child-friendly investigation and trial processes

The Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 provides child-friendly procedures for the investigation and trial of juveniles. The legal process is not allowed to further traumatize or stigmatize them. The Act mandates the formation of Juvenile Justice Boards (JJBs), which conduct hearings in a manner that is sensitive to the child’s needs. The proceedings are informal so that the child does not feel intimidated by the legal system.

Furthermore, the law provides that children should not be handcuffed or treated as adults and requires the police officers and the judicial officers to receive specific training in handling cases of juveniles so that the rights of the child are respected and promoted. These child-friendly procedures are essential in reducing the potential for further harm during the investigation and trial stages, helping the child maintain dignity and avoid the stigma associated with criminality.

Case Studies and Statistics Demonstrating Impact

While there is limited long-term data on the Act’s impact, several case studies and statistical reports indicate positive outcomes in addressing juvenile delinquency. For instance, analyses have reflected a decrease in juvenile recidivism rates after being sent to rehab homes or vocational training centers. The DCPCR of Delhi surveyed juveniles who are trained in the skill development programme and has reflected their improved reintegration into society where some of them have attained sustainable employment even after serving out their time.

Moreover, statistics from various states highlight the growing recognition of the need for child-centric justice. The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) has reported a steady decrease in juvenile crimes, especially in categories like theft, physical assault, and drug-related offenses, which indicates the effectiveness of rehabilitative measures over punitive actions.

Collaboration with NGOs, Schools, and Community Stakeholders

• The success of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 is also owed in no small measure to collaboration with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), schools, and community stakeholders. Many NGOs play important roles in providing counseling, education, and skill development programs for juveniles. It also increases the awareness level about children’s rights and supports the Act at grassroots levels.

  Schools and community organizations are important partners in the prevention of juvenile delinquency. They provide early intervention and create awareness about the dangers of engaging in criminal activities. School-based programs and community outreach initiatives educate children on the legal system, their rights, and the need to stay away from crime. These proactive measures help prevent juveniles from entering the justice system in the first place. Challenges in Implementation of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015

  Although the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 has brought significant changes in the juvenile justice structure of India, its enforcement is still facing many issues. These issues are limiting the effectiveness of the Act in protecting and rehabilitating children in conflict with law. Some of the important challenges in enforcing the provisions of the Act are as follows.

  1. Inadequate Infrastructure and Trained Personnel
  One of the most major challenges for the effective working of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 is that of an inadequate infrastructure and trained staff. The Act provides for specific homes, rehabilitation centers, and JJBs for child-friendly atmosphere, however, still, most states do not have the infrastructures required. The current homes suffer from overcrowding, inadequate infrastructures, and a lack of adequate facilities in respect of education, health, and recreations. This very basic goal of rehabilitation is hence compromised.

  In addition, the Act requires police officers, judicial officers, and social workers to be trained to deal with juvenile cases sensitively. A major problem is that most law enforcement officials and judiciary members are not well-equipped to understand child psychology or the rehabilitative approach required in juvenile cases. Lack of well-trained professionals leads to ineffective rehabilitation programs and tends to increase stigma around juveniles, which prevents them from being reintegrated into society successfully.

  2. Societal Stigma and Lack of Awareness about Juvenile Rights
  Societal stigma remains a significant barrier to the proper rehabilitation of the offenders, since most of the youngsters encounter major discrimination and exclusion soon after leaving the juvenile justice system, especially if the nature of their crime was severe. Stigma may impede rehabilitation and prevent the rehabilitation from engaging in opportunities related to education, employment, and social life, which further pushes the individuals to commit crimes again.

  In addition, there is still widespread ignorance of the rights of juveniles and the provisions of the Juvenile Justice Act. The public, along with key stakeholders like the police, parents, and educational institutions, usually does not understand why children in conflict with the law need to be treated differently from adult offenders. This lack of awareness results in the underutilization of the rehabilitative mechanisms provided by the Act and leads to confusion about the appropriate steps to take in handling juvenile cases.

  3. Gaps in rehabilitation and reintegration programs
  The Juvenile Justice Act stresses on the rehabilitative and reintegrative principles. However, it lacks uniform implementation across India. Many rehabilitation programs available for youths in conflict with law lack quality education, skills development, or counseling for those housed in such places. In their absence, prospects of reintegration into the community are reduced to near zero.

  The lack of aftercare services is another critical gap. Once children have served their term in rehabilitation homes, they cannot be reintegrated into the community. Support systems leading them to education, employment, or community-based services are not sufficient to counteract the temptation of further offending. This further deprives the intent of the Juvenile Justice Act to reform and reintegrate juvenile offenders into society.

  4. Problems Encountered by Trying Juveniles as Adults in Heinous Offenses
  A highly controversial provision under the Juvenile Justice Act is the one that allows children between 16 and 18 years of age to be tried as adults for heinous offenses, such as murder or rape. Although this provision was brought in to deal with the rising trend of violent juvenile crime, it has been a contentious issue. Critics have argued that it is against the grain of core tenets of juvenile justice; rehabilitation should supersede punishment. Treating children like adults for such serious offenses reduces their chances of reform, while long-term psychological and social damage might occur to a child.

  The implementation of this provision also raises questions about the criteria for determining whether a juvenile should be tried as an adult. The decision is based on the discretion of the Juvenile Justice Board, but there are no clear guidelines regarding the factors that should influence this decision. This inconsistency can lead to arbitrary or unjust decisions, which may not always be in the best interest of the child.

  5. State-Wise Implementation Differences
  The Juvenile Justice Act is a central law, but the implementation varies significantly across states and Union Territories. Large disparities exist in the availability of resources, infrastructure, and trained personnel. While Delhi and Maharashtra have fairly well-established juvenile justice systems, other states, mainly in rural or less developed regions, find it difficult to meet the requirements of the Act.

  This inconsistency in the implementation of the Act leads to unequal treatment of children in conflict with the law. In some areas, juveniles are subjected to delayed hearings, lack of legal representation, or even inadequate facilities in observation homes. Uniform standards across states would have otherwise ensured fair and equitable delivery of justice and rehabilitation, thus making the Act effective in providing a fair and just system for all children in conflict with the law.

Comparative Analysis with International Practices

Juvenile justice systems in various countries attempt to reconcile the demand for accountability with the understanding that children have the potential for rehabilitation. Varying approaches have been adopted by countries, taking into account their culture, law, and society. A comparative analysis of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 of India with international practices would show the similarities and differences in the handling of juvenile delinquency.

Juvenile Justice in the USA

The traditional US juvenile system has always relied more on rehabilitating the young people. However, over the years, the aspect of punishment has dominated such systems. Juveniles are tried as adults depending on the severity of crime committed, and in states where violent offenses are detected, they will be made to face such adult conditions. Some states have enforced life sentences with no one being released for such minor children. But in the recent past, reforms such as those after Supreme Court judgments such as Miller v. Alabama in 2012, which had outlawed the imposition of mandatory life sentences without parole on juveniles, again shifted the focus to rehabilitation.

Juvenile Justice in the UK

The UK, on the other hand, has adopted a rehabilitative approach through the Youth Justice System (YJS), which emphasizes preventing further offending through interventions like counseling, education, and community-based rehabilitation. The Children and Young Persons Act 2008 provides comprehensive measures for the treatment of juveniles, including diversion from formal justice procedures and specialized courts for young offenders. In addition, the UK gives emphasis to restorative justice practices, where offenders are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions in a manner that benefits the victim and promotes reconciliation.

Juvenile Justice in Scandinavian Countries:

Scandinavian countries, such as Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, are known for their advanced juvenile justice systems, where emphasis is given to rehabilitation and reintegration rather than punishment. In these countries, the age of criminal responsibility is older, and the offenders do not face adult punishment. Rehabilitation centers offer young offenders educational opportunities, therapy, and vocational training for reintegration into society. Individualized rehabilitation plans are central to Norway’s Barnevernet (Child Welfare Services) and Sweden’s approach.

India Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 : Some of the principles which appear in the international norms share a similarity with international best practice, especially in providing attention on rehabilitation and care while mirroring the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) while India ratified it way back in 1992. International practices are to differentiate children from adults with differing legal approaches. However, the existing Indian provision of trying juveniles aged 16-18 years in adult courts for heinous crimes is criticized on account of running contrary to UNCRC emphasis on rehabilitation over punitive measures.
Best Practices Available for Adoption by India

India would do well in adopting certain best practices followed around the world, such as:

• Restorative Justice: This involves greater reconciliation of the juvenile offender with the victim, more or less like in UK.
• Child-Centered Rehabilitation: Implementing individualized rehabilitation plans, similar to the models in Scandinavian countries.
• Diversionary Practices: Strengthening diversion programs to prevent children from entering the formal justice system, as practiced in many European countries.
• Higher Age for Criminal Responsibility: Reviewing the age of criminal responsibility and ensuring it aligns with international standards to avoid treating young offenders as adults in the justice system.
• By putting together these practices, India can improve its juvenile justice system and bring it in tune with international human rights standards. Recommendations for Reform of the Juvenile Justice System

To address the challenges already existing and to make the Juvenile Justice System in India stronger, several measures are required. These recommendations include better infrastructure, training for the personnel, community awareness, and controversial provisions of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015.

1. Improving Infrastructure and Training for JJB and CWC Personnel
   One of the critical effective juvenile justice factors is that of infrastructure quality in homes of observation and rehabilitation. Such homes must provide not just basic needs but also adequate environments for education, counseling, and skill development. A good government should invest much in modern facilities with good capacity to ensure that a child is not put in overcrowding.

   Moreover, the personnel involved in Juvenile Justice Boards (JJBs) and Child Welfare Committees (CWCs) must undergo rigorous and continuous training to understand child psychology, juvenile rights, and rehabilitation techniques. This training should also emphasize the importance of empathy and the principles of restorative justice. Creating a robust framework for regular capacity-building workshops will ensure that JJB and CWC members are equipped with the knowledge and skills needed to handle juvenile cases effectively.

2. Community involvement and awareness campaigns
   Most citizens are not aware of their rights, the purpose of the rehabilitation process, and what really goes on in the juvenile justice system. There is a strong need to educate the general public, especially in the rural and underserved populations. The awareness campaigns should aim at schools, families, and communities to understand how juveniles are rehabilitated. This can be enhanced through media outreach, holding workshops, and collaborating with NGOs to create a supportive environment for juveniles’ reintegration into society.

   In addition, community-based programs will involve stakeholders at the local level in rehabilitation, making it possible to have juveniles accepted and cared for by their communities.

3. Rehabilitative and Skills Building Programs
   Rehabilitation is a core of juvenile justice but the current rehabilitation programs in place are still not satisfactory. There is a need for rehabilitation programs to be strengthened by adding vocational training, life skills education, and mental health support. Collaboration with industries, educational institutions, and local businesses to give the youngsters opportunities for apprenticeships or internships will empower them in the development of skills in pursuit of a stable future. Aftercare programs supporting post-rehabilitation juveniles, continued counseling, education, and job placement help will drastically reduce the probability of offenders re-offending.
4. Addressing the Controversial Provisions on the Trying Juveniles as Adults
   The provision in the Juvenile Justice Act, which allows juveniles between 16-18 years of age to be tried as adults for heinous crimes, has generated much debate. While it is meant to deal with severe crimes, this approach goes against the very principle of juvenile justice that is rehabilitative. The law ought to be modified to see all juveniles, regardless of their crime’s severity, are treated as children first with respect to rehabilitation rather than retribution. Instead of subjecting juveniles to criminal trials as adults, the courts should take a balanced approach to consider whether this juvenile is of suitable age, has a sound state of mind, and if possible, rehabilitated.

Conclusion

The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 serves as a primary tool against juvenile delinquency in India. Its focus is on the rehabilitation of children in conflict with the law: therefore, the legislation places the child’s best interest first. Under this principle, juveniles must be handled not as offenders, but rather as individuals needing to be helped, cared for, and reformed. Its provisions are in line with the international standards, particularly with the principles of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), which calls for protection and rehabilitation of children in conflict with the law.

Among the strengths of the Act is its focus on rehabilitation rather than punishment. Children have the capacity to change owing to their development stages. Interventions should focus on reforming, reintegrating, and empowering them to be productive citizens. However, the Act also recognizes that there has to be accountability, particularly in cases involving heinous crimes. This provision while permitting juveniles between the ages of 16 to 18 years to stand trial as adults has triggered much controversy with regards to violation of rights of such juveniles and diluting the spirit of the corrective jurisprudence. Balancing rehabilitation with accountability is crucial. While it is necessary to hold juveniles accountable for their actions, this should not come at the expense of their rights to rehabilitation, education, and a fair chance at reintegration into society. Punitive measures should never overshadow the fundamental objective of juvenile justice – to protect and rehabilitate, not to punish.

Creating a robust juvenile justice system requires a multi-pronged approach. It requires concerted effort from legal authorities, social workers, community persons, and NGOs. Improved infrastructure, awareness programs, enhanced rehabilitation processes, and a more sensitive environment for juveniles need to be provided. Through a combination of legal, social, and community efforts, India can build up a more effective and compassionate juvenile justice system, that not only deals with the issue of juvenile delinquency but also protects the future of children in need of protection and care.

References

1. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India.
2. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), United Nations, 1989.
3. In Re: Exploitation of Children in Orphanages in the State of Tamil Nadu (2017) 1 SCC 507.
4. Pratap Singh v. State of Jharkhand (2005) 6 SCC 67 – This case highlights the need for reforms in the juvenile justice system, emphasizing rehabilitation over punitive measures.
5. National Policy for Children, Government of India, 2013. Ministry of Women and Child Development Report on Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, 2020, available at: https://wcd.nic.in/juv-justice.
6. “Reforming Juvenile Justice in India: A Critical Review” by Dr. Arun Kumar, Journal of Indian Law Institute, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2018. The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules), UNODC, 1985.
7. “The Role of NGOs in Juvenile Justice Reform in India” by R. S. Mehta, International Journal of Social Welfare, Vol. 44, No. 3, 2019. Juvenile Justice and the Law: A Comparative Study by N. G. Jayasree, Oxford University Press, 2017.
8. Gopinath v. State of Karnataka (2019) 8 SCC 12 – A landmark case discussing the role of the Juvenile Justice Board in ensuring the rehabilitation of juveniles.
9. World Health Organization (WHO), “Adolescent Development,” available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-development.
10. UNICEF Report on Juvenile Justice in India, 2020, available at: https://www.unicef.org/india.
11. “Juvenile Justice in the United States: An Analysis of Reforms and the Shift Toward Punitive Measures” by Julie K. Bohrer, Harvard Law Review, Vol. 134, No. 5, 2021.
12. “Global Juvenile Justice Systems: A Comparative Overview” by Thomas R. Simons, Springer, 2018.
13. Reports from the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) on Juvenile Justice, available at: https://nhrc.nic.in.
14. The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR), Annual Reports, available at: https://ncpcr.gov.in.
15. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), United Nations, 1966.