Autonomous Vehicles in India: Legal Challenges and Opportunities

This article has been written by Kajal Tyagi, a dedicated BBA L.L.B (Hons.) graduate with nearly 3 years of practical experience in legal and educational settings. 

Abstract Autonomous vehicles, poised to revolutionize transportation, present both exciting opportunities and significant challenges for India. This article explores the current state of autonomous vehicle technology in India, delving into advancements, key market players, and public perception. It examines the existing legal framework, comparing it with international standards, and identifies gaps that need addressing. The discussion extends to regulatory developments and government initiatives aimed at fostering a conducive environment for autonomous vehicles. Case studies from countries with successful implementations offer valuable lessons for India. Finally, the article outlines future prospects, highlighting expected technological advancements, anticipated changes in legal frameworks, and the collaborative roles of government, industry, and the public. This comprehensive overview aims to inform stakeholders and contribute to the ongoing discourse on safely integrating autonomous vehicles into India’s transportation system. Keywords: Autonomous vehicles, India, legal challenges, regulatory framework, technological advancements, public perception, government initiatives, international standards, safety, liability, data privacy, cybersecurity, infrastructure, pilot projects, future prospects.

Definition of Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous vehicles, also known as self-driving cars or driverless vehicles, are equipped with advanced technologies that enable them to navigate and operate without human intervention. These vehicles use a combination of sensors, cameras, radar, LiDAR, and artificial intelligence (AI) to perceive their environment and make real-time driving decisions. Autonomous vehicles are classified into different levels based on their capabilities, ranging from Level 0 (no automation) to Level 5 (full automation), with higher levels indicating greater degrees of automation and less reliance on human drivers.[1]

Importance and Potential Impact of Autonomous Vehicles in India

Autonomous vehicles have the potential to significantly transform the transportation landscape in India. The introduction of self-driving technology could address several critical issues, such as reducing traffic congestion, improving road safety, and enhancing mobility for various segments of the population, including the elderly and disabled. Additionally, autonomous vehicles can contribute to environmental sustainability by optimizing driving patterns, reducing fuel consumption, and lowering emissions.

In a country like India, where road accidents are a major concern, the deployment of autonomous vehicles could lead to a substantial reduction in fatalities and injuries. Furthermore, the adoption of autonomous vehicles could spur economic growth by creating new opportunities in technology development, manufacturing, and services. The integration of autonomous vehicles into India’s transportation system holds the promise of making travel more efficient, safer, and more accessible.

Purpose of the Article

The purpose of this article is to explore the legal challenges and opportunities associated with the deployment of autonomous vehicles in India. As the country embarks on this technological journey, it is essential to understand the existing legal framework, identify the regulatory gaps, and propose solutions that can facilitate the safe and effective integration of autonomous vehicles into the Indian transportation ecosystem. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current status, regulatory developments, and future prospects of autonomous vehicles in India, while also drawing insights from international case studies and best practices. By addressing the legal and regulatory aspects, this article seeks to contribute to the ongoing discourse on how India can harness the potential of autonomous vehicles while ensuring public safety and compliance with legal standards.

Current Status of Autonomous Vehicles in India

Technological Advancements and Testing in India

India has witnessed significant technological progress in the field of autonomous vehicles over the past few years. Research institutions, startups, and established automotive companies have been actively working on developing and testing self-driving technologies. Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and other premier engineering colleges are at the forefront of this research, focusing on advanced algorithms, sensor technologies, and machine learning models tailored for the complex Indian driving environment.

Several pilot projects have been initiated to test autonomous vehicle technologies in controlled environments. For instance, some tech hubs and special economic zones are being used as testing grounds for autonomous shuttles and delivery robots. These pilot projects aim to gather data and refine the technology to handle the diverse and often chaotic traffic conditions typical of Indian roads.

Key Players in the Indian Market

The autonomous vehicle landscape in India is shaped by a mix of startups, tech companies, and traditional automotive manufacturers. Startups like Auro Robotics, Ati Motors, and Minus Zero[2] are pioneering autonomous driving solutions, focusing on creating low-cost, efficient, and scalable autonomous vehicle platforms. These companies often collaborate with academic institutions and leverage local expertise to innovate in this space.

Tech giants such as Tata Elxsi and Infosys are also investing heavily in autonomous vehicle technologies. They are developing software and hardware solutions that integrate with existing automotive systems, aiming to enhance safety, navigation, and overall vehicle performance. 

Automotive manufacturers like Tata Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, and Maruti Suzuki are exploring autonomous technologies as well. They are working on integrating advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS)[3] into their vehicles, which is a crucial step toward fully autonomous driving. These companies are also partnering with global tech firms to bring state-of-the-art autonomous technologies to the Indian market.

Public Perception and Adoption Rates

Public perception of autonomous vehicles in India is mixed, with a blend of excitement and skepticism. On one hand, there is considerable enthusiasm about the potential benefits of autonomous vehicles, such as improved safety, reduced traffic congestion, and enhanced mobility for the elderly and disabled. On the other hand, concerns about safety, reliability, and job displacement (particularly among drivers) are prevalent.

Adoption rates of autonomous vehicle technologies are still in the nascent stage. While there is growing interest in semi-autonomous features such as adaptive cruise control, lane-keeping assist, and automatic emergency braking, fully autonomous vehicles are not yet a common sight on Indian roads. Public awareness campaigns and demonstrations of autonomous vehicle technology are crucial for increasing acceptance and trust among consumers.

Overall, the current status of autonomous vehicles in India reflects a dynamic and evolving landscape. Significant technological advancements, active participation of key players, and gradually shifting public perception are laying the groundwork for the future of autonomous transportation in the country. However, addressing legal, regulatory, and infrastructural challenges remains critical to unlocking the full potential of autonomous vehicles in India.

Existing Legal Framework

Overview of Indian Traffic Laws and Regulations

India’s traffic laws and regulations are primarily governed by the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988[4], and the Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989. These laws regulate vehicle registration, driver licensing, traffic control, and safety standards. The Act and its subsequent amendments have traditionally focused on human-driven vehicles, emphasizing driver responsibilities, vehicle safety standards, and penalties for traffic violations.

The Indian Road traffic system is managed by a combination of central and state-level authorities. Each state can implement additional regulations and modifications to address local traffic conditions and enforcement practices. Despite these regulations, the enforcement of traffic laws can be inconsistent, leading to varying degrees of compliance and road safety across the country.

Current Regulations Related to Autonomous Vehicles

As of now, India does not have a comprehensive legal framework specifically designed for autonomous vehicles. The existing regulations, including the Motor Vehicles Act, do not address the unique requirements and challenges posed by self-driving technologies. This regulatory gap presents significant obstacles for the development and deployment of autonomous vehicles in India.

However, there have been some preliminary steps toward creating a legal structure for autonomous vehicles. The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) has shown interest in the development of autonomous vehicle technology and has initiated discussions on drafting appropriate guidelines. In 2021, MoRTH released a draft notification amending the Motor Vehicles Act to include provisions for automated testing[5] and certification of autonomous vehicle technology.

Pilot projects and testing of autonomous vehicles are currently managed through special permissions granted by the government on a case-by-case basis. These permissions often include specific safety requirements and operational limitations to ensure public safety during the testing phase.

Comparison with International Standards and Practices

When compared to international standards and practices, India’s regulatory approach to autonomous vehicles is still in its infancy. Countries like the United States, Germany, Japan, and Singapore have made significant strides in creating legal frameworks that support the testing and deployment of autonomous vehicles.

In the United States, for example, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)[6] provides guidelines and policies for the testing and deployment of autonomous vehicles. Individual states have their own regulations, with some states like California and Arizona being more progressive in allowing autonomous vehicle operations on public roads.

Germany has enacted laws that permit the use of autonomous vehicles under specific conditions, and the country has established clear liability frameworks for accidents involving autonomous cars. Japan, similarly, has been proactive in promoting autonomous vehicle technology, with the government working closely with industry stakeholders to create supportive regulations.

Singapore is another leader in this space, having developed a comprehensive regulatory framework that includes licensing, testing, and operational guidelines for autonomous vehicles. The country has designated specific areas for autonomous vehicle testing and has implemented a phased approach to integrate these vehicles into the public transport system.

India can learn from these international experiences by adopting best practices and tailoring them to the local context. Establishing clear regulations, safety standards, and liability frameworks will be crucial for fostering innovation while ensuring public safety. Additionally, collaboration with international regulatory bodies and participation in global discussions on autonomous vehicle standards can help India develop a robust and future-proof legal framework.

Challenges in the Legal Landscape

1. Safety and Liability Concerns
2. Determining Liability in Case of Accidents

One of the most significant challenges in the legal landscape for autonomous vehicles in India is determining liability in the event of an accident. Traditional traffic laws are designed around the concept of a human driver being at fault. However, with autonomous vehicles, the responsibility shifts towards the manufacturer, software developer, or even the vehicle itself. This raises complex legal questions about who should be held accountable when an autonomous vehicle is involved in an accident. Establishing clear liability frameworks is essential to address these concerns and provide clarity for all stakeholders involved.

2. Insurance Issues

The advent of autonomous vehicles also brings new challenges to the insurance industry. Existing insurance models are built on the premise of human error being the primary cause of accidents. With autonomous vehicles, the risk landscape changes, and so do the factors determining insurance premiums. Insurers will need to develop new products and policies that account for the unique risks associated with autonomous technology. This includes understanding the role of software, hardware, and potential cybersecurity threats in accident scenarios.

1. Data Privacy and Cybersecurity
2. Protection of Personal Data

Autonomous vehicles rely heavily on data collection and processing to navigate and make real-time decisions. This data often includes personal information about passengers, their travel patterns, and their interactions with the vehicle. Ensuring the protection of this data is crucial to maintaining user trust and complying with data privacy laws. India’s data privacy regulations, such as the Personal Data Protection Bill, need to be aligned with the specific requirements of autonomous vehicle technology to safeguard personal information effectively.

2. Cybersecurity Threats and Responses

Autonomous vehicles are susceptible to cybersecurity threats due to their reliance on interconnected systems and the Internet of Things (IoT). Hackers could potentially gain control of an autonomous vehicle, leading to catastrophic outcomes. Addressing these threats requires robust cybersecurity measures, including secure communication protocols, regular software updates, and comprehensive threat detection systems. Developing industry standards for cybersecurity and ensuring compliance with these standards is vital for protecting autonomous vehicles from malicious attacks.

1. Infrastructure and Technological Readiness
2. Road Infrastructure

The deployment of autonomous vehicles necessitates significant upgrades to existing road infrastructure. Autonomous vehicles rely on clear road markings, signage, and well-maintained roads to function effectively. In India, the quality and consistency of road infrastructure vary widely across regions, presenting a challenge for the reliable operation of autonomous vehicles. Investment in smart infrastructure, including connected traffic lights, dedicated lanes for autonomous vehicles, and advanced traffic management systems, is essential for supporting the widespread adoption of autonomous technology.

2. Communication Networks

Effective communication networks are critical for the operation of autonomous vehicles. These vehicles need constant connectivity to receive real-time data, communicate with other vehicles (vehicle-to-vehicle or V2V communication), and interact with traffic management systems (vehicle-to-infrastructure or V2I communication). India’s communication network infrastructure, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas, needs significant enhancement to support these requirements. The rollout of 5G technology is a positive step in this direction, but ensuring reliable and high-speed connectivity across the entire country remains a challenge.

Regulatory Developments and Government Initiatives

Draft Policies and Proposed Regulations

India has started to recognize the potential of autonomous vehicles and the need for a supportive regulatory framework. The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) has taken initial steps towards developing policies that address the unique requirements of autonomous vehicle technology. In 2021, MoRTH released a draft notification proposing amendments to the Motor Vehicles Act, which include provisions for the testing and certification of autonomous vehicles. These amendments aim to establish safety standards and operational guidelines to ensure the safe deployment of autonomous vehicles on public roads.

Additionally, the government is considering regulations that cover various aspects of autonomous driving, such as defining levels of automation, setting requirements for data sharing and cybersecurity, and establishing liability frameworks. These draft policies reflect a commitment to creating a regulatory environment that balances innovation with public safety.

Government Partnerships with Private Sector and Academia

Collaboration between the government, private sector, and academia is crucial for the advancement of autonomous vehicle technology in India. The government has initiated several partnerships to foster innovation and facilitate the development of autonomous vehicles.

One such initiative is the establishment of the National Automotive Board (NAB)[7], which serves as a nodal agency to coordinate and promote research and development in the automotive sector, including autonomous vehicles. The NAB collaborates with industry players, research institutions, and universities to create a robust ecosystem for autonomous vehicle technology.

Moreover, the government has encouraged public-private partnerships (PPPs)[8] to accelerate the adoption of autonomous vehicles. Companies like Tata Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, and startups such as Auro Robotics and Ati Motors are working closely with government bodies to test and refine their technologies. These collaborations aim to address technical challenges, improve safety standards, and ensure regulatory compliance.

Pilot Projects and Testing Zones

Pilot projects and designated testing zones play a critical role in the development and deployment of autonomous vehicles in India. These initiatives provide a controlled environment where new technologies can be tested, and their safety and effectiveness can be evaluated before wider public adoption.

Several cities in India have been earmarked as potential testing zones for autonomous vehicles. For example, Pune and Bangalore, known for their tech-savvy populations and advanced infrastructure, have been identified as prime locations for pilot projects. These cities offer a conducive environment for testing autonomous shuttles, delivery robots, and other autonomous vehicle applications.

In addition to urban testing, the government is exploring the use of dedicated testing facilities, such as the National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRiP) centers. These centers provide state-of-the-art facilities for the testing and validation of autonomous vehicle technologies under various conditions, ensuring comprehensive assessment and safety verification.

The government is also supporting pilot projects in specific use cases, such as autonomous buses for public transportation, autonomous delivery vehicles for logistics, and autonomous agricultural machinery. These projects aim to demonstrate the practical benefits of autonomous technology and gather valuable data to inform future regulatory decisions.

Case Studies

Successful Implementations in Other Countries

Numerous countries have made significant progress in integrating autonomous vehicles into their transportation systems, offering valuable insights for India.

United States:

The U.S. has been a pioneer in autonomous vehicle technology, with states like California, Arizona, and Nevada leading the way. Companies like Waymo, Tesla, and Uber have conducted extensive testing and launched pilot programs. Waymo, for instance, operates a fully autonomous ride-hailing service in Phoenix, Arizona, demonstrating the potential for large-scale deployment.

Germany:

Germany has implemented a comprehensive regulatory framework for autonomous vehicles. The country passed legislation that allows for Level 4 autonomous vehicles to operate on public roads under specific conditions. German automakers like Mercedes-Benz and Audi have been at the forefront, conducting rigorous testing and deploying advanced driver assistance systems in their vehicles.

Singapore:

Singapore is known for its proactive approach to smart mobility. The country has established dedicated autonomous vehicle testbeds, such as the one-north business park. The Land Transport Authority (LTA) collaborates with companies like nuTonomy (now part of Aptiv) to test autonomous taxis. Singapore’s well-structured regulatory environment and investment in smart infrastructure have positioned it as a leader in autonomous vehicle adoption.

Lessons Learned and Best Practices

The experiences of these countries offer several key lessons and best practices that can be applied to India’s journey towards autonomous vehicle integration.

Regulatory Clarity:

Clear and comprehensive regulations are essential. Countries that have successfully implemented autonomous vehicles have established detailed guidelines covering safety standards, liability, and data privacy. These regulations provide a framework that encourages innovation while ensuring public safety.

Public-Private Collaboration:

Collaboration between government bodies, private companies, and research institutions is crucial. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have been instrumental in advancing technology and addressing regulatory and infrastructural challenges. These partnerships facilitate knowledge sharing and resource pooling.

Infrastructure Investment:

Investing in smart infrastructure is vital. This includes upgrading road infrastructure, implementing connected traffic management systems, and ensuring reliable communication networks. Countries like Singapore and Germany have made significant investments in these areas, creating an environment conducive to autonomous vehicle operation.

Pilot Programs and Testing:

Extensive testing and pilot programs help in understanding the practical challenges and refining the technology. Controlled testing environments and real-world pilot projects provide valuable data and insights, leading to safer and more efficient autonomous vehicle deployment.

Public Awareness and Education:

Building public trust and acceptance is crucial for the widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles. Educational campaigns and transparent communication about the benefits and safety measures of autonomous technology help in addressing public concerns and fostering acceptance.

Potential Applicability to India

Applying these lessons to India involves adapting successful strategies to the unique Indian context.

1. Regulatory Framework: India needs to develop a clear regulatory framework specifically for autonomous vehicles. Drawing from international best practices, the framework should address safety standards, liability issues, and data privacy concerns. Collaboration with global regulatory bodies can help in formulating robust regulations.
2. Public-Private Partnerships: Strengthening partnerships between the government, private sector, and academia is essential. Leveraging the expertise and resources of industry players and research institutions can accelerate the development and deployment of autonomous vehicles. Initiatives like the National Automotive Board (NAB) can play a pivotal role in coordinating these efforts.
3. Infrastructure Development: Significant investment in infrastructure is required to support autonomous vehicles. Upgrading road infrastructure, implementing smart traffic management systems, and expanding communication networks are critical steps. The rollout of 5G technology will enhance vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication.
4. Pilot Projects: Implementing pilot projects in diverse environments, such as urban, semi-urban, and rural areas, will provide valuable insights. These projects can focus on specific use cases like autonomous buses, delivery vehicles, and agricultural machinery. Controlled testing zones in cities like Pune and Bangalore can serve as starting points.
5. Public Engagement: Educating the public about autonomous vehicle technology and its benefits is crucial. Transparent communication about safety measures, pilot project outcomes, and regulatory developments will help in building public trust and acceptance. Public awareness campaigns and demonstrations can address concerns and highlight the positive impact of autonomous vehicles on safety and efficiency.

Future Prospects

1. Predicted Advancements in Autonomous Vehicle Technology

The future of autonomous vehicles in India holds great promise, with anticipated advancements that will revolutionize transportation.

1. Enhanced AI and Machine Learning: Future autonomous vehicles will leverage more sophisticated AI and machine learning algorithms to navigate complex environments. These advancements will improve the ability of vehicles to make real-time decisions, enhancing safety and efficiency.
2. Advanced Sensor Technologies: Innovations in sensor technology, including LiDAR, radar, and cameras, will provide autonomous vehicles with better situational awareness. These sensors will become more accurate and cost-effective, making them more accessible for widespread use.
3. V2X Communication: Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication will enable autonomous vehicles to interact seamlessly with other vehicles, infrastructure, and pedestrians. This technology will improve traffic management, reduce congestion, and enhance overall road safety.
4. Energy Efficiency and Sustainability: Autonomous vehicles are expected to integrate with electric and hybrid technologies, contributing to greener and more sustainable transportation solutions. Advances in battery technology and charging infrastructure will support this transition.
5. Shared Mobility: The rise of shared autonomous vehicle fleets will transform urban transportation. Ride-sharing and autonomous public transport services will become more prevalent, offering convenient and cost-effective mobility options.

2. Expected Changes in Legal and Regulatory Frameworks

The legal and regulatory landscape for autonomous vehicles in India is expected to evolve significantly to accommodate technological advancements.

1. Comprehensive Legislation: India will likely develop comprehensive legislation specifically for autonomous vehicles. This framework will include detailed safety standards, data privacy regulations, and liability provisions, ensuring a clear and consistent legal environment.
2. Dynamic Regulatory Approach: A dynamic and adaptive regulatory approach will be essential to keep pace with rapid technological changes. Regular updates to regulations and standards will ensure they remain relevant and effective in addressing new challenges and opportunities.
3. Global Harmonization: India may align its regulations with international standards and best practices, facilitating global interoperability and encouraging foreign investments and collaborations. Participation in international forums and regulatory bodies will help in shaping a harmonized global framework for autonomous vehicles.
4. Incentives and Support: The government may introduce incentives and support mechanisms to encourage the development and adoption of autonomous vehicles. This could include funding for research and development, tax incentives for manufacturers, and subsidies for pilot projects.

1. Role of Stakeholders (Government, Industry, Public) in Shaping the Future

The successful integration of autonomous vehicles in India will require active involvement and collaboration among various stakeholders.

1. Government: The government will play a crucial role in setting the regulatory framework, providing infrastructure, and fostering innovation. Policymakers will need to engage with industry experts, academia, and the public to create policies that balance safety, innovation, and public interest. Government initiatives and funding will be essential for research, development, and pilot projects.
2. Industry: The automotive and technology industries will drive the development and deployment of autonomous vehicles. Collaboration among automakers, tech companies, startups, and research institutions will be vital for advancing technology and addressing technical challenges. Industry players will also need to work closely with regulators to ensure compliance and contribute to the formulation of practical and effective regulations.
3. Public: Public acceptance and trust will be key to the widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles. Transparent communication, public awareness campaigns, and education about the benefits and safety of autonomous technology will help in building public confidence. Involving the public in pilot projects and gathering feedback will ensure that the technology meets user needs and addresses concerns.
4. Academia: Research institutions and universities will contribute to the development of cutting-edge technologies and provide critical insights into safety, ethics, and societal impacts. Collaborative research initiatives and academic-industry partnerships will foster innovation and help in addressing the multifaceted challenges of autonomous vehicle deployment.

Conclusion

1. Summary of Key Points

The exploration of the legal landscape for autonomous vehicles in India highlights several critical areas of focus:

1. Current Status: Autonomous vehicle technology is advancing rapidly, with key players in the Indian market making significant strides. However, public perception and adoption rates remain cautious.
2. Legal Framework: India’s existing traffic laws do not adequately address the unique challenges posed by autonomous vehicles. Comparisons with international standards reveal a need for comprehensive regulatory development.
3. Challenges: Key challenges include determining liability in accidents, addressing data privacy and cybersecurity concerns, and upgrading infrastructure and communication networks.
4. Regulatory Developments: Efforts are underway to draft policies and regulations, foster public-private partnerships, and establish pilot projects to test autonomous technologies.
5. Case Studies: Successful implementations in countries like the US, Germany, and Singapore provide valuable lessons and best practices that can be adapted to the Indian context.
6. Future Prospects: Anticipated advancements in technology, expected changes in the legal framework, and the roles of various stakeholders will shape the future of autonomous vehicles in India.

1. The Path Forward for Autonomous Vehicles in India

India’s journey towards integrating autonomous vehicles into its transportation system involves several strategic steps:

1. Developing Comprehensive Regulations: Formulating clear and adaptive regulations that address safety, liability, and data privacy is crucial. Engaging with international regulatory bodies can help harmonize standards.
2. Fostering Collaboration: Strengthening partnerships between government, industry, and academia will drive innovation and ensure the practical implementation of autonomous technologies.
3. Investing in Infrastructure: Upgrading road infrastructure, enhancing communication networks, and implementing smart traffic management systems are essential for supporting autonomous vehicles.
4. Implementing Pilot Projects: Conducting pilot projects in diverse environments will provide valuable data and insights, facilitating the safe and efficient deployment of autonomous vehicles.
5. Public Engagement: Educating the public about the benefits and safety measures of autonomous vehicles will build trust and acceptance, paving the way for broader adoption.

1. Final Thoughts on Balancing Innovation with Safety and Regulation

Balancing innovation with safety and regulation is the cornerstone of successfully integrating autonomous vehicles in India.

1. Innovation: Encouraging innovation through supportive policies and incentives will drive technological advancements and economic growth. Public-private partnerships and research collaborations will play a vital role in this process.
2. Safety: Ensuring the safety of autonomous vehicles through stringent testing, robust cybersecurity measures, and clear liability frameworks is paramount. Regulatory bodies must continuously update standards to keep pace with technological changes.
3. Regulation: Developing a dynamic and adaptive regulatory framework that evolves with the technology will provide clarity and stability for all stakeholders. Engaging with international standards and best practices will ensure a comprehensive approach.

In conclusion, the path forward for autonomous vehicles in India involves a coordinated effort to develop supportive regulations, foster innovation, invest in infrastructure, and engage the public. By balancing the imperatives of innovation, safety, and regulation, India can unlock the full potential of autonomous vehicles, transforming its transportation landscape and enhancing mobility, safety, and sustainability.

[1] https://www.britannica.com/technology/autonomous-vehicle

[2] https://www.analyticsinsight.net/latest-news/top-10-self-driving-car-companies-in-india-to-overshadow-tesla-by-2025

[3] https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/adas-drivers-seat-rise-advanced-driver-assistance-india-mudduluru-gsgwe/

[4] https://morth.nic.in/motor-vehicles-act-1988

[5] https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/notifications_document/GSR%20652.pdf

[6] https://www.nhtsa.gov/vehicle-safety/automated-vehicles-safety

[7] https://fame2.heavyindustries.gov.in/

[8] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096585642300294X